Jumping or leaping is a form of locomotion or movement in which an organism In biology, an organism is any contiguous living system . In at least some form, all organisms are capable of response to stimuli, reproduction, growth and development, and maintenance of homoeostasis as a stable whole. An organism may either be unicellular (single-celled) or be composed of, as in humans, many trillions of cells grouped into or non-living (e.g., robotic Robotics is the engineering science and technology of robots, and their design, manufacture, application, and structural disposition. Robotics is related to electronics, mechanics, and software. The word robot was introduced to the public by Czech writer Karel Čapek in his play R.U.R. , published in 1920. The term "robotics" was coined) mechanical system propels itself through the air along a ballistic trajectory. Jumping can be distinguished from running, galloping, and other gaits Gait is the pattern of movement of the limbs of animals, including humans, during locomotion over a solid substrate. Most animals use a variety of gaits, selecting gait based on speed, terrain, the need to maneuver, and energetic efficiency. Different animal species may use different gaits due to differences in anatomy that prevent use of certain where the entire body is temporarily airborne by the relatively long duration of the aerial phase and high angle of initial launch.

Some animals, such as the kangaroo A kangaroo is a marsupial from the family Macropodidae . In common use the term is used to describe the largest species from this family, especially those of the genus Macropus, Red Kangaroo, Antilopine Kangaroo, Eastern Grey Kangaroo and Western Grey Kangaroo. Kangaroos are endemic to the continent of Australia. The smaller macropods are found in, employ jumping (commonly called hopping in this instance) as their primary form of locomotion Animal locomotion, which is the act of self-propulsion by an animal, has many manifestations, including running, jumping and flying. Animals move for a variety of reasons, such as to find food, a mate, or a suitable microhabitat, and to escape predators. For many animals the ability to move is essential to survival and, as a result, selective, while others, such as frogs Frogs are amphibians in the order Anura , formerly referred to as Salientia (Latin salere (salio), "to jump"). Most frogs are characterized by long hind legs, a short body, webbed digits (fingers or toes), protruding eyes and the absence of a tail. Frogs are widely known as exceptional jumpers, and many of the anatomical characteristics, use it only as a means to escape predators. Jumping is also a key feature of various activities and sports, including the long jump Competitors run down a runway and jump as far as they can from behind a foul line (commonly referred to as the "board", and usually defined by the trailing edge of a takeoff board embedded flush with the runway surface, or a painted mark on the runway) into a pit filled with finely ground gravel or sand. The distance traveled by a jumper, high jump The high jump is a track and field athletics event in which competitors must jump over a horizontal bar placed at measured heights without the aid of any devices. It has been contested since the Olympic Games of ancient Greece. Over the centuries since, competitors have introduced increasingly more effective techniques to arrive at the current, and show jumping Show jumping, also known as "stadium jumping" or "jumpers," is a member of a family of English riding equestrian events that also includes dressage, eventing, hunters and equitation. Jumping classes are commonly seen at horse shows throughout the world, including the Olympics. Sometimes shows are limited exclusively to jumpers,.

Contents

Physics of jumping

Jumping bottlenose dolphin Bottlenose dolphins, the genus Tursiops, are the most common and well-known members of the family Delphinidae, the family of oceanic dolphins. Recent molecular studies show the genus contains two species, the Common Bottlenose Dolphin and the Indo-Pacific Bottlenose Dolphin (Tursiops aduncus), instead of one. They inhabit warm and temperate seas

All jumping involves the application of force against a substrate, which in turn generates a reactive force that propels the jumper away from the substrate. Any solid or liquid capable of producing an opposing force can serve as a substrate, including ground or water. Examples of the latter include dolphins performing traveling jumps, and Indian skitter frogs executing standing jumps from water.

Jumping organisms are rarely subject to significant aerodynamic forces and, as a result, their jumps are governed by the basic physical laws of ballistic trajectories In physics, the ballistic trajectory of a projectile is the path that a thrown or launched projectile will take under the action of gravity, neglecting all other forces, such as friction from air resistance, or propulsion under the influence of Earth's gravity. Consequently, while a bird may jump into the air to initiate flight, no movement it performs once airborne is considered jumping, as the initial jump conditions no longer dictate its flight path.

Following the moment of launch (i.e., initial loss of contact with the substrate), a jumper will traverse a parabolic path. The launch angle and initial launch velocity determine the travel distance, duration, and height of the jump. The maximum possible horizontal travel distance occurs at a launch angle of 45 degrees, but any launch angle between 35 and 55 degrees will result in ninety percent of the maximum possible distance.

Muscles (or other actuators The efficiency of an actuator is a standard tool used to calculate or estimate the usefulness of any actuating mechanism. It is a dimensionless quantity which is generally lower than 1 expressing the energy conversion factor. For better explanation see Thermodynamic efficiency. Most of the wasted energy is thermally dissipated in non-living systems) do physical work, adding kinetic energy The kinetic energy of an object is the extra energy which it possesses due to its motion. It is defined as the work needed to accelerate a body of a given mass from rest to its current velocity. Having gained this energy during its acceleration, the body maintains this kinetic energy unless its speed changes. Negative work of the same magnitude to the jumper's body over the course of a jump's propulsive phase. This results in a kinetic energy The kinetic energy of an object is the extra energy which it possesses due to its motion. It is defined as the work needed to accelerate a body of a given mass from rest to its current velocity. Having gained this energy during its acceleration, the body maintains this kinetic energy unless its speed changes. Negative work of the same magnitude at launch that is proportional to the square of the jumper's velocity. The more work the muscles do, the greater the launch velocity and thus the greater the acceleration and the shorter the time interval of the jump's propulsive phase.

Mechanical power The dimension of power is energy divided by time. The SI unit of power is the watt , which is equal to one joule per second. Non-SI units of power include ergs per second (erg/s), horsepower (hp), metric horsepower (Pferdestärke (PS) or cheval vapeur, CV), and foot-pounds per minute. One horsepower is equivalent to 33,000 foot-pounds per minute, (work per unit time) and the distance over which that power is applied (e.g., leg length) are the key determinants of jump distance and height. As a result, many jumping animals have long legs and muscles that are optimized for maximal power according to the force-velocity relationship of muscles Muscle fiber generates tension through the action of actin and myosin cross-bridge cycling. While under tension, the muscle may lengthen, shorten or remain the same. Although the term 'contraction' implies shortening, when referring to the muscular system it means muscle fibers generating tension with the help of motor neurons. The maximum power output of muscles is limited, however. To circumvent this limitation, many jumping species slowly pre-stretch elastic elements, such as tendons A tendon is a tough band of fibrous connective tissue that usually connects muscle to bone and is capable of withstanding tension. Tendons are similar to ligaments and fascia as they are all made of collagen except that ligaments join one bone to another bone, and fascia connect muscles to other muscles. Tendons and muscles work together and can or apodemes, to store work as strain energy. They can release this enenrgy at a much higher rate (higher power) than thus increasing launch energy to levels beyond what muscle alone is capable of.

A jumper may be either stationary or moving when initiating a jump. In a jump from stationary (i.e., a standing jump), all of the work required to accelerate the body through launch is done in a single movement. In a moving jump or running jump, the jumper introduces additional vertical velocity at launch while conserving as much horizontal momentum as possible. Unlike stationary jumps, in which the jumper's kinetic energy at launch is solely due to the jump movement, moving jumps have a higher energy that results from the inclusion of the horizontal velocity preceding the jump. Consequently, jumpers are able to jump greater distances when starting from a run.

Anatomy

A bullfrog The American Bullfrog , often simply known as the Bullfrog in the United States, is an aquatic frog, a member of the family Ranidae, or “true frogs”, native to much of North America. This is a frog of larger, permanent water bodies, swamps, ponds, lakes, where it is usually found along the water's edge. On rainy nights, bullfrogs along with skeleton, showing elongate limb bones and extra joints. Red marks indicate bones substantially elongated in frogs, and joints that have become mobile. Blue indicates joints and bones that have not been modified, or are only somewhat elongated.

Animals use a wide variety of anatomical adaptations for jumping. These adaptations are exclusively concerned with the launch, as any post-launch method of extending range or controlling the jump must use aerodynamic forces, and thus is considered gliding Gliding is a recreational activity and competitive air sport in which pilots fly unpowered aircraft known as gliders or sailplanes using naturally occurring currents of rising air in the atmosphere to remain airborne. The word soaring is also used for the sport or parachuting The history of skydiving starts with Andre-Jacques Garnerin who made successful parachute jumps from a hot-air balloon in 1797. The military developed parachuting technology as a way to save aircrews from emergencies aboard balloons and aircraft in flight, later as a way of delivering soldiers to the battlefield. Early competitions date back to.

Aquatic species rarely display any particular specializations for jumping. Those that are good jumpers usually are primarily adapted for speed, and execute moving jumps by simply swimming to the surface at a high velocity. A few primarily aquatic species that can jump while on land, such as mud skippers, do so via a flick of the tail.

Limb morphology

In terrestrial animals, the primary propulsive structure is the legs, though a few species use their tails. Typical characteristics of jumping species include long legs, large leg muscles, and additional limb elements.

Long legs increase the time and distance over which a jumping animal can push against the substrate, thus allowing more power and faster, farther jumps. Large leg muscles can generate greater force, resulting in improved jumping performance. In addition to elongated leg elements, many jumping animals have modified foot and ankle bones that are elongated and possess additional joints, effectively adding more segments to the limb and even more length.

Frogs are an excellent example of all three trends: frog legs can be nearly twice the body length, leg muscles may account for up to twenty percent of body weight, and they have not only lengthened the foot, shin and thigh, but extended the ankle bones into another limb joint and similarly extended the hip bones and gained mobility at the sacrum for a second 'extra joint'. As a result, frogs are the undisputed champion jumpers of vertebrates, leaping over fifty body lengths, a distance of more than eight feet.[1]

Power amplification through stored energy

Grasshoppers The grasshopper is an insect of the suborder Caelifera in the order Orthoptera. To distinguish it from bush crickets or katydids, it is sometimes referred to as the short-horned grasshopper. Species that change color and behaviour at high population densities are called locusts are known to use elastic energy storage to increase jumping distance. As noted above, power output is a principal determinant of jump distance, but physiological constraints limit muscle power to approximately 375 Watts per kilogram of muscle.[2] To overcome this limitation, grasshoppers anchor their legs via an internal "catch mechanism" while their muscles stretch an elastic apodeme (similar to a vertebrate tendon A tendon is a tough band of fibrous connective tissue that usually connects muscle to bone and is capable of withstanding tension. Tendons are similar to ligaments and fascia as they are all made of collagen except that ligaments join one bone to another bone, and fascia connect muscles to other muscles. Tendons and muscles work together and can). When the catch is released, the apodeme rapidly releases its energy. Because the apodeme releases energy more quickly than muscle, its power output exceeds that of the muscle that produced the energy.

This is analogous to a human throwing an arrow by hand versus using a bow; the use of elastic storage (the bow) allows the muscles to operate closer to isometric on the force-velocity curve Muscle fiber generates tension through the action of actin and myosin cross-bridge cycling. While under tension, the muscle may lengthen, shorten or remain the same. Although the term 'contraction' implies shortening, when referring to the muscular system it means muscle fibers generating tension with the help of motor neurons. This enables the muscles to do work over a longer time and thus produce more energy than they otherwise could, while the elastic element releases that work faster than the muscles can. The use of elastic energy storage has been found in jumping mammals as well as in frogs, with commensurate increases in power ranging from two to seven times that of equivalent muscle mass.[3]

Classification

One way to classify jumping is by the manner of foot transfer.[4] In this classification system, five basic jump forms are distinguished:

Leaping gaits, which are distinct from running Running is a means of terrestrial locomotion allowing a human or an animal to move rapidly on foot. It is defined in human sporting terms as a gait in which at some point all feet are off the ground at the same time. This is in contrast to walking, where one foot is always in contact with the ground, the legs are kept mostly straight and the gaits (see Locomotion Animal locomotion, which is the act of self-propulsion by an animal, has many manifestations, including running, jumping and flying. Animals move for a variety of reasons, such as to find food, a mate, or a suitable microhabitat, and to escape predators. For many animals the ability to move is essential to survival and, as a result, selective), include cantering The canter is a controlled, three-beat gait performed by a horse. It is a natural gait possessed by all horses, faster than most horses' trot but slower than the gallop, and is used by all riders. The speed of the canter varies between 16-27 km/h , depending on the length of the stride of the horse. A variation of the canter, seen in western, galloping Horse gaits are the different ways in which a horse can move, either naturally or as a result of specialized training by humans, and pronging Stotting is a gait of quadrupeds, particularly gazelles (e.g. Thomson's Gazelles), involving jumping high into the air by lifting all four feet off the ground simultaneously. This may occur during pursuit by a predator. It might also occur during play. This reduces the lead distance and speed of the pursued animal, and thus makes it easier for the.[5]

Devices and techniques for enhancing jumping height

The height of a jump may be increased by using a trampoline A trampoline is a device consisting of a piece of taut, strong fabric stretched over a steel frame using many coiled springs. People bounce on trampolines for recreational and competitive purposes or by converting horizontal velocity into vertical velocity with the aid of a device such as a half pipe A half-pipe is a structure used in gravity extreme sports such as snowboarding, skateboarding, skiing, freestyle BMX and inline skating. The structure is usually wood, although sometimes the surface is made of another material such as concrete, metal, dirt or snow. In appearance, it resembles a cross section of a swimming-pool, and in its most.

Various exercises can be used to increase an athlete's vertical jumping height. One category of such exercises—plyometrics Plyometrics is a type of exercise training designed to produce fast, powerful movements, and improve the functions of the nervous system, generally for the purpose of improving performance in sports. Plyometric movements, in which a muscle is loaded and then contracted in rapid sequence, use the strength, elasticity and innervation of muscle and—employs repetition of discrete jumping-related movements to increase speed, agility, and power.

References

  1. ^ Zug, G. R. (1978). Anuran Locomotion: Structure and Function. II. Jumping performance of semiacquatic, terrestrial, and arboreal frogs. Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology 276, iii-31.
  2. ^ Marsh, R. L. (1994). Jumping ability of anuran amphibians. Advances in Veterinary Science and Comparative Medicine 38, 51-111.
  3. ^ Peplowski, M. M. and Marsh, R. L. (1997). Work and power output in the hindlimb muscles of cuban tree frogs Osteopilus septentrionalis during jumping. J. Exp. Biol. 200, 2861-2870.
  4. ^ Study Guide for Elementary Labanotation Laban is a system and language for understanding, observing, describing and notating all forms of movement. Devised by Rudolf Laban, LMA draws on his theories of effort and shape to describe, interpret and document human movement. Used as a tool by dancers, athletes, physical and occupational therapists, it is one of the most widely used systems by Peggy Hackney, Sarah Manno (Editor), Muriel Topaz (Editor)
  5. ^ Tristan David Martin Roberts (1995) Understanding Balance: The Mechanics of Posture and Locomotion, Nelson Thornes, ISBN 0412601605.

See also

Look up jumping in Wiktionary Wiktionary is a multilingual, web-based project to create a free content dictionary, available in over 151 languages. Unlike standard dictionaries, it is written collaboratively by volunteers, dubbed "Wiktionarians", using wiki software, allowing articles to be changed by almost anyone with access to the website, the free dictionary.
Animal locomotion on land Terrestrial locomotion has evolved as animals adapted from aquatic to terrestrial environments. Locomotion on land raises different problems than that on water, with reduced friction being replaced by the effects of gravity
Gait class
Legged Brachiation Brachiation is a form of arboreal locomotion in which primates swing from tree limb to tree limb using only their arms · Arboreal locomotion · Hand-walking Hand walking is an unusual form of human locomotion in which a person travels in a vertically inverted orientation with all body weight resting on the hands. It can be executed with legs fully extended or with variations such as stag, straddle or front splits. Hand walking is performed in various athletic activities, including acro dance and · Jumping · Knuckle-walking Knuckle-walking is a form of quadrupedal walking in which the forelimbs hold the fingers in a partially flexed posture that allows body weight to press down on the ground through the knuckles · Gait Gait is the pattern of movement of the limbs of animals, including humans, during locomotion over a solid substrate. Most animals use a variety of gaits, selecting gait based on speed, terrain, the need to maneuver, and energetic efficiency. Different animal species may use different gaits due to differences in anatomy that prevent use of certain · Running Running is a means of terrestrial locomotion allowing a human or an animal to move rapidly on foot. It is defined in human sporting terms as a gait in which at some point all feet are off the ground at the same time. This is in contrast to walking, where one foot is always in contact with the ground, the legs are kept mostly straight and the · Walking Walking is one of the main gaits of locomotion among legged animals, and is typically slower than running and other gaits. Walking is defined by an 'inverted pendulum' gait in which the body vaults over the stiff limb or limbs with each step. This applies regardless of the number of limbs - even arthropods with six, eight or more limbs
Legless Concertina movement Concertina movement is the movement occurring in snakes and other legless organisms that consists of gripping or anchoring with portions of the body while pulling/pushing other sections in the direction of movement. Each point on the snake's body goes through alternating cycles of static contact and movement, with regions propagating posteriorly · Lateral undulation · Rectilinear locomotion Rectilinear locomotion is a mode of locomotion most often associated with snakes, particularly heavy-bodied species like terrestrial pythons and boas, although most snakes are capable of it. Unlike all other modes of snake locomotion, in which the snake bends its body, in rectilinear locomotion, the snake flexes its body only when turning · Rolling Terrestrial locomotion has evolved as animals adapted from aquatic to terrestrial environments. Locomotion on land raises different problems than that on water, with reduced friction being replaced by the effects of gravity · Sidewinding Sidewinding is a type of locomotion unique to caenophidian snakes, used to move across loose or slippery substrates. It is most often used by the Saharan horned viper, Cerastes cerastes, and the sidewinder rattlesnake, Crotalus cerastes, to move across loose desert sands, but it is also used by Homalopsine snakes in Southeast Asia to move across · Other modes Terrestrial locomotion has evolved as animals adapted from aquatic to terrestrial environments. Locomotion on land raises different problems than that on water, with reduced friction being replaced by the effects of gravity
Anatomy Anatomy is a branch of biology and medicine that is the consideration of the structure of living things. It is a general term that includes human anatomy, animal anatomy (zootomy) and plant anatomy (phytotomy). In some of its facets anatomy is closely related to embryology, comparative anatomy and comparative embryology, through common roots in Digitigrade A digitigrade is an animal that stands or walks on its digits, or toes. Digitigrades include walking birds , cats, dogs, and most other mammals, but not humans, bears, and a few others (cf. plantigrade, unguligrade). Digitigrades are generally quicker and move more quietly than other mammals · Plantigrade In terrestrial animals, plantigrade locomotion means walking with the podials and metatarsals flat on the ground. It is one of three forms of locomotion adopted by mammals. The other options are digitigrade, walking on the toes with the heel and wrist permanently raised, and unguligrade, walking on the nail or nails of the toes with the heel/wrist · Ungulate Ungulates are several groups of mammals, most of which use the tips of their toes, usually hoofed, to sustain their whole body weight while moving. They make up several orders of mammals, of which six to eight survive. There is some dispute as to whether Ungulata are a cladistic (evolution-based) group, or merely a phenetic group or folk taxon ( · Uniped The term uniped refers to a person or creature with only one foot and one leg, as contrasted with a biped (two legs) and a quadruped (four legs). Moving using only one leg is known as unipedal movement. There are no known animals which have naturally evolved with only one leg, although through accidents (i.e. amputation) or birth abnormalities it · Biped · Triped · Quadruped · Facultative biped
Specific Dog gait · Horse gait · Human gait
Fish locomotion · Flying and gliding animals · Animal locomotion on the surface layer of water

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What is the best horse for english riding and jumping?
Q. I ride english and love to jump but I can't find a good jumping horse. I was thinking maybe an arabian. I want the kind of horse that is mainly ridden english and can jump! Thanks!
Asked by *I love my Quarter Horse* - Wed Jul 9 12:21:58 2008 - - 17 Answers - 1 Comments

A. I have an arabian and he jumps great! Its really all about where you want to go in jumping. Do you want to do breed specific show? Or open shows? Or just pleasure? If you want to do Arabian jumping I highly recommend it. The Arabian shows offer great venues and shows for Arabian sport horse/jumping. Also you don't need to be a buy 30,000 horse just to win in the arab division as opposed to the open. If you want to do open shows I would recommend a warmblood of some sort...I wouldn't invest in a thourghbred because they don't exactly have the best resale rate because many believe they hot head. (Its really more a stereotype) And lastly if you want to do it for pleasure I advise to get a horse that suits you and that seems special. Don't… [cont.]
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